Manage change task 2 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Manage change task 2 - Research Paper Example In most cases, organizational change tends to be radical and can lead to reorientation of the business. Organisational change tends to be deep seated, thereby impacting the stakeholders of the company as well (Smith, Vasudevan and Tanniru). Organisational change is based on external factors and these factors impact the organisation and also act as driving forces in a number of times. Benefits of Change Specialists: Change in an organisation means an impact on the processes of an organisation. This impact can be very wide spread or simply concentrated on one aspect of the business; however it does create major ripples in the organisation. Consulting or hiring a change consultant is crucial for a business attempting change and the benefits of hiring a change consultant is very high (Hiatt and Creasey). Firstly, change management consultants are experienced and well versed with the various aspects and change and have clear resources as well as methods of dealing with change. Also, chang e management consultants have the expertise to manage communication within the organisation, which is crucial. Change is not well accepted in most organisations and having a change consultant, who can communicate the change details effectively, makes the process smoother and more effective (Nelson and Aaron). Consultants of change also design the communication plans, training and development plans, documentation, improvements of the organisation, career development plans, and also the designing, developing of plans to bring about the improvements within the organisation. Also, consultants work with the clients and learn their requirements, make the project plans and also work on the tasks and value added solution. Change management is a professional job and it is best left to individuals with the expertise for it. Need for Change: Strategic change involves a number of changes to the organisation as a whole. Hence before an organisation decides to make a strategic change to itself, a few questions and areas need to be considered. These include the following: Firstly, is the organization a start up business? If yes, then implementing a strategic change is crucial and is a necessity rather than a luxury. The strategic change plan helps identify the business plan and also helps in linking all other elements like marketing plan, financial plans, management plans and also communication plans together (Smith, Vasudevan and Tanniru). Secondly, the next question that the company needs to ask itself is, Are we planning for a new major venture? Here if the company is opting for a major venture like product expansion or brand extensions, new department or division etc, then it is crucial for the businesses to implement strategic change. Is the company due for the annual strategic plan update? If so, it is crucial that the company has the strategic change plan developed and set as well. Companies need to focus on the various performance meters within the organisation and k eep a tab on the trends. This will help the company determine whether or not a change management is necessary or not. Strategic Objectives: The rationale and objectives for any change management program are important aspects. Objectives are in most cases specific and achievable and in most cases these objectives are the most

Art Management and Marketing assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Art Management and Marketing assignment - Essay Example However, owing to the fact that there have been recent dynamics and shifts in this industry, stakeholders have been compelled to undertake proper analysis in relation to the facets of the art industry in order to make sound decisions. This project focuses on a case study analysis of Baxter Theatre and its external and internal environments that affect its success either positively or negatively. Moreover, it focuses on a discussion of forecasted cashflow and income statement of the organisation as well as the financial risks it faces as it continues with its operations. In addition, the case study uses the SWOT analysis tool to analyse the company’s enviroment in terms of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. The organisation focuses on curation and facilitating performances such as overnight hotel collaboratives and residency performances as well as provision of a platform for university and high school students to produce films and engage them in networking for a period of approximately two months, thus improving their capacity to perform in the favorite art activities. The long term goal that the organisation aspires to achieve is to create a society where art is appresciated and perceived not as an altertanative means of income, but rather a pertinent aspect of social and economic development. This is to be achieved through capacity building by narturing talent of young artists at university and high school level while creating awareness in the society on the need to appreciate art. There are various external factors that directly or indirectly affect the success of the organisation towards achieving its mission, short-term and the long-term goals. This because of the inherent potential threats and challenges these factors can cause to the organisations. One of the major external factors affecting the success of the organisation is competition from other well established art organisations (Mark, 2011).

Huckleberry Finn or Uncle Tom Cabin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Huckleberry Finn or Uncle Tom Cabin - Essay Example ano)-to a slave trader. Although Emily Shelby despises such an idea as she had assured her maid that her child, in no way , would be sold; Emily's son, George Shelly (Thomas Fritsch), detests to see Tom leaving as he finds him as his great friend and guide. Eliza , on the first impression, appears to be a very weak woman.Eavesdropping on Mr. and Mrs. Shelby she comes to know aabout their plans to sell Tom and Harry, when she resolves to flee with her son. From the film it appears that Eliza's decision comes not from her courage or confidence not to bow down to injustice, but by her fear of losing her onlyliving child (she already lost two children owing to miscarriage). Next we see her leaving the house of Arthur and Eliza Emily Shelby that night, leaving a letter admitting guilt to her mistress. But why should she The answer is to be found in the novel which the film follows strictly. In the novel Stowe portrayed like Eliza, as an as the "ideal Christian"(Athena, 1995). Later critics have observed that Stowe's female characters are often " domestic cliches", weak rather than strong and realistic women(Lowance et al, 1994). Stowe's puritinical values show up in the novels final, overriding subject matter -- the search of the nature of Christinaity and how Christianity goes aginst slavery that also overshadows the film , the theme being most evident when we see Tom insisting St. Clare(O.W. Fisher) to "look away to Jesus" after the death of St. Clare's dearest daughter little Eva ( the white young girl whoTom saves fron drowing down Mississipi river while he is sold and placed on a boat sailing down the and with whom he befriends a young white girl. Augustine St.Clare, the grateful father of Eva, in return, Eva's father, buys Tom from the slave trader and takes him with the family to their home in New Orleans while Tom and Eva starts to come closer owing to the the deep Christian faith they both share). After Tom's death , waxing lyrical about Tom George Shelby, says, "What a thing it is to be a Christian.". Christianity as theme dominating over the novel makes the film appear like a lecture where women are always to be depicited as submissive and yeilding, carinng only to motherhood. Those women who are depicted as Villainous here, are the typse that donot conform to Christianity. For example, the wife of St.Clare (Eleonara Rossi-Drago). After St. Clare is gravely stabbed while trying to stop a fight intervening in a fight Mrs St.Clare breaks her late husband's promise and sells Tom at mart to a brutal plantation owner named Simon Legree( Herbert Lom).Legree , not an indigenous southerner but a relocated Yankee. This very act of Mrs St.Clare suggests that the film has the message that women , if not belonging to the meek, religious values teaching submissio can become ruthlessly cruel to counteract their male partners, in this case the good and sincere St.Clare. We also see

Human resource management1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human resource management1 - Essay Example 2003, 17-22). Linkage is related to the amount of contact amongst the organization's planned planners, the HR department, and the managers who will be accountable for carry out the plans. Linkages can variety from minimal (groups working separately) to full incorporation (groups working interdependently), but they are classically mix together. For example, information pertaining to hiring may flow together ways, whereas information regarding financial support of projects might be handed down from the top management to HR. The suitable degree of connection depends on the business climate, organizational wants, and business strategy; however, a few linkage among HR and management is generally essential. A disconnect between planners and managers can effortlessly derail the planning and completion processes (Alavi, M., and Leidner, 2001, 107-136). This is not only theoretically dangerous, but also empirically dubious, and the claims have been extensively criticized elsewhere (Thompson and Ackroyd 1995; Thompson and Findlay 1999; Smith and Thompson 1998). So much emphasis is put on managerial discourses and systems that there is a consistent confusion between the technological potential for surveillance and the managerial capacity to monitor and manipulate, and between managerial discourses about correct behavior and the reality of continued misbehavior. Not only are intent and outcome very different in the workplace, there is plenty of case-study evidence that employees are aware of the gap between managerial rhetoric and action, often seeking to exploit it for their own ends. In the light of critical views of Tom Redman & Adrian Wilkinson, The stipulation of lots of social services occurs inside a structure that has been termed the "hollow state," an approach to policy completion that relies upon private or nonprofit organizations to bring certain public goods (Milward, Provan, and Else 1993). The "hollowness" of this system is needy upon the degree to which services are put into practice by nongovernmental organizations and measured along a diversity of dimensions counting the control retained by one or further public agencies, the degree of designation to nonpublic actors, the efficiency of coordination, and mechanisms to assess the delegated service delivery. When nonprofit organizations obtain contracts or funding to deliver public goods or services, the delegating agency assumes a enough level of capacity to put into practice the project or deliver the service. Though, if the nonprofit community-based organizations are too incomplete in capacity to c arry out their grants or contracts, then a disconnect occurs in the empty state. This disconnect may obvious itself either in the difference of capacity among the public and nonprofit sectors, or in the lack of capability in community-based nonprofit organizations (Tom Redman & Adrian Wilkinson, 2006). In the light of critical views of Karen Legge. Cross-national differences in institutional structures are probable to generate management practices that diverge from country to country, in spite of the fact

Competitive Analysis - Questionnaire Research Paper

Competitive Analysis - Questionnaire - Research Paper Example p and based on its international expansion in different regions like Portugal, New York and Paris it tended to reflect a fashion icon of Spanish fashion (Loeb, 2013). Total number of stores created by Zara by the close of 2013 amounted to 1,763 which along with its other family brands like Pull and Bear, Oysho and Massimo Dutti tend to meet the demands of customers reflecting different attitudes and preferences (don Quijote Salamanca S.L., 2014). Potential competitors of Zara relate to Hennes and Mauritz (H&M) and Topshop that specifically operate to meet the needs of the luxury and women customers (Doran, 2014). Another potential competitor of Zara relate to Mango that operates in meeting the demands of trendy wear for both male and female customers. Both Zara and Mango operate in the luxury segment through exclusive retail outlets and also departmental stores. The two companies focus on promoting its merchandises based on the use of website and Facebook as the primary advertising m ediums (Zara, 2013). 2. Direct competitors of Zara relates to the fashion retail companies like H&M, Topshop and Mango that essentially operate in the fashion retail segment. These companies are identified as direct competitors in that they directly compete with Zara in the luxury fashion garment. On the contrary the indirect competitors are identified to be such companies that though belong to the same business as the company cater to related customers outside the market periphery of the initial company (Glassman, 2010). Cortefiel is observed to be an indirect competitor to the Spanish fashion retailer Zara in that it operates as a Spanish fashion retailer that offers different products and brands to the regional customer base (Grupo Cortefiel , 2010). The background of the research is to understand the competitive potential of Zara both in the Spanish and the global retail market. It would aim to understand and evaluate the areas where Zara is losing its market to its competitors

No topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

No topic - Essay Example New York, which seems to be the base of the book has the image of a mother adopting children coming from other families. The ones mentioned in the book were the Italians, Russian-Jews, Dominicans and Chinese and Jamaicans for the 1900. The role of immigration to American history or to New York history specifically, is as significant as to understanding the purpose of the immigrants' existence. But just like any other stranger who tends to land to an unknown place, these immigrants to New York also face different challenges that either force them to leave or continue living in the one busy place of New York. Now how are they looked at What are the bases of their significance as immigrants First, there is of course the color to where they belong. The Jamaicans can be said to be a perfect example for this. The next big thing will be the gender. Immigrants before had more problems settling on one quality job compared to the contemporary days where the availability of vacant positions with a fair and equal position is greater.

Sport Scale Essay Example for Free

Sport Scale Essay ABSTRACT The primary purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motivation. Also, the new measure was employed to examine the relationship between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. One hundred sixty nine college students from two southeastern institutions participated in this study. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bivariate correlation, t test, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics. The Fan Motivation Scale (FMS), developed in this study, consisted of six components with 22 items. The number of items under every component range from 5 to 2 items (quality of the game 4 items, escape 5 items, boredom avoidance 5 items, social 3 items, entertainment 3 items, and sport atmosphere 2 items). In addition, two hypotheses were tested in the current study. The first hypothesis was that ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivation. The second hypothesis assumed that there was a difference between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. The results revealed the FMS is a reliable measure with an overall alpha score of 0.90. Significant differences were found between participants in the total FMS and some of the subscales based on gender and ethnicity. However, the outcomes of the samples examined in this study do not support the first hypothesis. Therefore, no significant relationship was found between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. Regarding the second hypothesis, a significant difference was found between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Sports have become an increasingly important part of our society. Sports fans represent a significant percentage of sport consumers, because 70 percent or more of Americans watch, read, or discuss sports at least once a day (Iso-Ahola Hatfield, 1986). From 1985 to 1998, attendance has significantly increased at the four major sports in the United States. Major League Baseball (MLB) had the largest increase in the number of people attending games (24. 2 million, a 50% increase), followed by professional basketball (10. 3 million, a 89% increase), professional football (5.7 million, a 40% increase), and professional hockey (5. 6 million, a 49% increase). The number of people attending college sporting events has also increased during this time period (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000). Additionally, more television programming time is being devoted to sporting events. The ESPN was the fifth highest ranked television network in 2000, in terms of revenue, it was estimated to be $2. 1 billion (McAvoy, 2000). With the increase of interest in sports has become an increased interest of sports fans as consumers. Sport teams and companies are very interested in attracting as many consumers as possible to purchase game tickets or products. Therefore, sport marketers should acknowledge the factors that drive fans to follow sport by attending, watching on television, or purchasing products. However, understanding the notion of sports fans is not simple because their attitudes and behaviors are not determined by a single motive or factor but rather occur for a variety of reasons (Mashiach, 1980). Statement of the Problem There has been a growing interest in the study of sport fan motivations in recent years to better understand fan behaviors (Bilyeu Wann, 2002; Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, Hirakawa, 2001; Funk, Mahony Ridinger, 2002; Funk, Ridinger, Moorman, 2003; Gantz, 1981; Kahle, Kambara, Rose, 1996; Lee, 2002; Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, Gladden, 2002; Pease Zhang, 2001; Trail James, 2001; Wann, 1995; Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn Gambouras, 1999; Wann, Brewer, 1 Royalty, 1999; Wann, Schrader Wilson, 1999). Some of these studies have introduced measures of different consumption motives of sport fans. In addition, researchers have examined the relationship between fan motivation and other variables such as team identification, involvement, gender, and race. The measures used in previous studies to assess fan motivations vary in length and number of components. However, some of the components are used in all or most scales such as the entertainment component, the family component, and the friends component. They also share very similar items with regard to similar components. Items used in most previous scales often begin with the words â€Å"I like†, â€Å"I enjoy†, or â€Å"I feel† which raises a validity issue for the measures because the aforementioned words represent satisfaction and attitude rather than motivation. Fan satisfaction relates to the happiness and pleasure associated with the outcome of a sporting event while fan attitude represents the opinion and feelings an individual has about a sport team or sporting event. On the other hand, sport fan motivation refers to the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, buy team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. The Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motives. Also, the new measure was utilized to examine the relationship between fan motivation and ethnic identity. The Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework of this study includes the discussion of two concepts. First, the Fan Motivation Scale and its content will be introduced. Second, the notion of ethnic identity and why it should be correlated with sport fan motivation will be presented. The prior research (Wann, 1995; Funk, Mahony, Nakazawa, Hirakawa, 2001; Bilyeu Wann, 2002) identified various motives that could drive fans to attend sporting events. Some of these motives are related to personal needs (entertainment and financial 2 gain), social needs (bonding with family and group affiliation), and psychological needs (self-esteem and achievement). In attempt to measure the motives of sport fans, the researchers introduced different scales. These scales comprised different number of motives ranging from 7 motives with 16 items to 18 motives with 54 items. The length of some of the scales was not the only problem. The major concern for previous scales is in the content validity, the extent to which items used in the scale accurately represent fan motives. In fact, all previous scales included items that are more related to attitude and satisfaction then motivation. The reason for this problem is the lack of clear definition of sport fan motivation. The current study is going to view sport fan motivation as the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, purchase team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. In addition, this study will employ a review of related literature and the prior effort made on fan motivation scales to develop valid and reliable measures of sport fan motivation. The proposed Fan Motivation Scale (FMS) will measure six motives: social, entertainment, escape, aesthetic, psychological, and amotivation. The social motive assesses the extent to which individuals participate in sporting events as spectators because they desire to spend time with their families (Gantz, 1981; Wann, 1995). Also, to some individuals, group affiliation is an important motivation of being a sport fan. Sport spectating provides a fan with opportunities to share time with others who enjoy the same activities. A fan may want to keep contact with a group of fans and seek refuge from a feeling of alienation (Branscombe Wann, 1991; Smith, 1988; Wann, 1995). The entertainment motive includes items that represent the desire of some individuals to have a good time and enjoy the excitement associated with sporting events. Some fans might enjoy a sport because of its entertainment value. Sport spectating provides fans with leisure pastime activities similar to watching movies or television. One advantage of sport spectating is that few special skills, if any, are required (Zillmann, Bryant Sapolsky, 1989; Wann, 1995). The escape motive of sport fans assesses the desire of sport fans to escape or diverge from their everyday lives. Attending a sporting event gives many people an 3 opportunity to temporarily forget about their troubling, dissatisfying, or boring lives (Smith, 1988; Lever Wheeler, 1984; Wann, Schrader Wilson, 1999). The aesthetic motive of sport fans appeals to those that are motivated by the aesthetic value of the sport. Some fans enjoy sports because of the competition between highly skilled athletes. The beauty, grace, and other artistic characteristics make some people enjoy sporting events (Milne McDonald, 1999; Wann, 1995). The psychological motive is a factor that motivates sports fans and gives them a feeling of accomplishment and achievement when the fans’ favorite team or player is successful. Sports fans tend to associate themselves with a successful team or player in order to create and sustain a positive self-concept (Branscombe Wann, 1991; Milne McDonald, 1999; Sloan, 1989). Amotivation refers to the state of lacking an intention to act. When amotivated, individual’s action lacks intentionality and a sense of personal causation (Ryan Deci, 2000). Amotivation results from not valuing an activity (Ryan, 1995), not feeling competent to do it (Deci, 1975), or not believing it will yield a desired outcome (Seligman, 1975). Some individuals might go to sport events and watch sport games because they have nothing else to do, bored, and want to kill time. These types of reasons had been neglected in previous studies of sport fan motivation. As mentioned earlier, prior research has examined the relationship between fan motivations and other variables such as sport involvement, team identification, and some demographic factors of selected sport fans. However, the ethnic identity of sport fans has been ignored in the literature. It might be assumed by some researchers that the race factor is enough representation of an individual’s ethnic background. It is, however, only part of the concept. Ethnic identity is defined as â€Å"a process of coming to terms with one’s ethnic-racial membership group as a salient reference group† (Smith, 1991, p. 182). Smith (1991) defined an ethnic group as â€Å"a reference group called upon by people who share a common history and culture† (p. 181). According to Gordon (1985), culture influences our social standards, values, cognitions, social perceptions, attributions, feelings, and sources of motivation. Individuals develop their ethnic identity through their social interaction with others. Through their interactions they begin to view themselves as others view them 4 (Stryker, 1980). Ethnic identity is viewed as part of social identity and it was defined by Tajfel (1981) as â€Å"that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† (p.255). An ethnic group is composed of a number of individuals who share a sense of group identity based on their unique culture, which include values, morals, and various customs, as well as shared origins. In the larger society, ethnic groups tend to maintain a sense of peoplehood (Dublin, 1996; Kornblum Janowitz, 1974; Portes, 1996). Forty years ago, Tumin (1964) defined an ethnic group as â€Å"a social group which, within a large cultural and social system, claims or is accorded special status in terms of complexity of traits which it exhibits or is believed to exhibit† (p.123). Distinguishing between ethnic groups is not always simple. Some ethnic minorities, such as African Americans, may have obvious physical differences that set them apart from other ethnic groups within the United States, but many biracial individuals present an ambiguity because they belong to two or more ethnic groups, which makes ethnicity a subjective construct (Root, 1992). Studying ethnic identity is very important because it is the foundation for what an individual believes about himself or herself. Given the significance of ethnic identity, many researchers have been studying this construct. Phinney (1990) reviewed 70 studies of ethnic identity published between 1972 and 1990. She found that most of the studies have used one of three theoretical frameworks to examine ethnic identity. The first framework is the social identity theory which ethnic identity is considered a component of social identity. Social theory refers to the need for an individual to be a member of a group that provides him or her with a sense of belonging that contributes to a positive self-concept. The second framework is the acculturation prospective. The concept of acculturation refers to changes in the cultural attitudes, value, and behaviors that result from interactions between two distinct cultures (Berry, Trimble, Olmedo, 1986). These kinds of changes are normally the concern of a group of individuals, and how it relates to the dominant or host society. Ethnic identity can be an aspect of acculturation in which the focus is on the individuals and how they relate to their own group as a subgroup of the larger society (Phinney, 1990). The third framework is developmental framework, where ethnic identity is viewed as a process by which people construct their ethnicity. 5 Erikson (1968) indicated that identity is the outcome of a period of exploration and experimentation that normally takes place during adolescence and leads to a decision of commitment in various areas, such as occupation, and religion. This view of ethnic identity suggests age as a factor is strongly related to developing one’s ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). Phinney (1990) mentioned that most studies have focused on certain components of ethnic identity. These components include self-identification as a group member, a sense of belonging to the group, attitudes about one’s group membership, and ethnic involvement (social participation, cultural practices and attitudes). Self-identification represents the ethnic label that one uses for oneself. The ability of children to label themselves with the right ethnic group was the addressed in a study by Aboud (187). Another issue was the relationship between incorrect labeling and poor self-concept (Cross, 1978). Adults are expected to know their ethnicity but the issue is what label one chooses to use for himself or herself. However, some ethnic groups have a little choice in what ethnic title they can use for themselves often because of their distinctive skin color or culture (language, dresses, customs, etc. ) which distinguishes them from other groups. Additionally, some individuals have two or more ethnic backgrounds and they identify themselves as members of more than one group. Ethnic self-identification is an important but complex component of ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). The feeling of belonging to one’s own group is an important element of ethnic identity. Some researchers have tried to assess the sense of belonging by either asking people how strong was their relationship with their groups or how separate they feel from other groups (Driedger, 1976). Members of every ethnic group can have positive or negative attitudes toward their own group. Some of the positive attitudes related were pride in and pleasure, satisfaction, and contentment with one’s group (Phinney, 1990). Negative attitudes include dissatisfaction, displeasure, discontentment, and a desire to hide ones identity (Driedger, 1976). People who display no positive attitudes or express negative attitudes can be seen as denying their ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). In addition, the involvement in the social life and cultural practices of one’s ethnic group is considered a strong indicator of one’s ethnic identity. The social and cultural practices 6 that represent the involvement component include language, friendship, social organizations, religion, cultural traditions, and politics (Phinney, 1990). Phinney (1992) developed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) with the purpose of assessing ethnic identity among various ethnic groups. The scale was designed to measure three components of ethnic identity: affirmation and belonging, ethnic identity achievement, and ethnic behaviors. Roberts, Phinney, Masse, Chen, Roberts, and Romero (1999) examined the validity of the MEIM and conducted factor analysis with a large sample. The outcomes suggest that the scale measures two components of ethnic identity: ethnic identity search and affirmation, belonging, and commitment. Ethnic identity search refers to a developmental and cognitive component. Affirmation, belonging, and commitment represent the affective component. However, the scale has been proven to be a valid and reliable measurement and it will be used in the context of this study. More discussion of the scale is provided in the method section. Researchers have indicated that positive relationships do exist between ethnic identity and self-esteem, self-concept, psychological well-being, achievement, and satisfaction (Phinney, 1992; Roberts et al. , 1999; Delworth, 1989). However, it is the purpose of this study to examine the relationship between ethnic identity and motivations of sport fans. According to Phinney (1990) some studies have used sport as a cultural item to measure ethnic identity. Pons, Laroche, Nyeck, and Perreault (2001) indicated that the choice of a particular sporting event represents a strong cultural meaning for the individual. Some ethnic groups tend to identify with a specific sport, for example, soccer in the Italian community and hockey among the French Canadian. Pons et al. , (2001) stated â€Å"ethnic groups do not all react to sporting events in the same way; they differ in the means and the pace of their integration into the host culture† (p.238). African American consumers tend to attend historically Black college/university sports more frequently than they did any other sport. The level of ethnic identification of African American fans has significant affect on their attendance frequency to historically Black college/university sports (Armstrong, 2002). Moreover, previous studies showed differences in motivation between African American and European American sport fans based on ethnicity (Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn, Gambouras, 1999; Bilyeu Wann, 2002; Armstrong, 2002). 7Ã'Ž Therefore, it is expected that there is a relationship between sport fans’ motivation and ethnic identity. Research Hypotheses H1: Ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivations. H2: There is a difference between African American and European American in their ethnic identity. Operational Definitions Ethnic Identity: â€Å"part of an individual’s self-concept that derives from his or her knowledge of membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership† (Phinney, 1992, p.156). Sport fan: refers to someone who is enthusiastic about a particular sport team or athlete (Wann, 1995). Sport fan motivation: refers to the reasons that drive individuals to support sport teams, be loyal to them, buy team/sport related products, watch and attend sporting events. Delimitations This study is delimitated to: 1. Investigate the ethnic identity and motivations of sport fans in general. For that reason, no specific group of fans (i. e. , basketball fans, football fans) was examined. 2. The student at Florida State University (FSU) and Florida Agriculture and Mechanical University (FAMU), therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to populations other than the population from which the sample was drawn. 8 Limitations This study is limited to the following: 1. The outcome of this study depends on the participants’ honesty and cooperation in answering the questions. 2. Due to the nature of this study as self-administrated surveys, the researcher’s access is limited to the classes gained via permission to attend and meet. Assumptions This study is based on the following assumptions: 1. The surveys used in this study are clear and understandable for the participants. 2. The participants will answer the questions honestly and accurately. 3. The surveys are valid and reliable. Significance of the Study The sport marketers are in a high competition within the sport industry and also with outside competitors. Young generations are attracted through technology to new types of entertainment such as computer/video games and the X-Games. â€Å"These new entertainment options have already attracted a significant amount of attention from the so -called X-generation† (Kwon Trail, 2003, p. 1). Therefore, sport marketers should be concern about the future of the sport industry. In order for sport marketers to maintain their consumer base and to attract young generation, they should explore and examine the consuming behavior of sport fans and the factors that might influence their behavior. According to Gramann and Allison (1999), â€Å"the increase in the ethnic diversity of North America is one of the most powerful demographic forces shaping U. S. and Canadian society† (p. 283). Therefore, studying ethnic identity as an important social characteristic of sport fans is important to sport marketers. The importance of studying ethnic groups among sport fans is reflected by the increasing percentage of minority participation in professional sport, especially African American. African American athletes represent 25 to 75 percent of athletes on the rosters for the three popular sports (baseball, basketball, football) (Gano-Overway Duda, 2001). 9 The goal of this study was to introduce a new measure of fan motivation which will assist practitioners in the sport industry to understanding the driving factors for sport fans to attend sporting events, support sport teams, or buy team/sport related products. Also, the relationship between motivations and ethnic identity of sport fans was examined. The outcome of the study should provide practitioners with valuable information to assist them in understanding the various motives of sport fans based on their ethnic identity. Therefore, sport marketers should be able to improve their plans and strategies to maintain their fan base and fulfill the desires for their target market. 10 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature on ethnic identity and motivation of sport fans. It should be noted that to date, no research has combined and analyzed the interaction of the two identified variables. As such, the first section of this chapter focuses on the research that has been done on the ethnic identity of sport fans. The second section discusses motives of sport fans as well as scales that have been used to assess these motives. Ethnic Identity and Sport Fans Ethnicity as social and cultural characteristic of sport fans has been ignored in the literature although the race factor, which is the physical aspect of ethnicity, has been utilized for comparison between ethnic groups. However, Armstrong (2002) examined the influence of ethnic identification on Black consumers’ attendance at historically Black college/university (HBCU) sports. To assess ethnic identification, Armstrong used a self-report measure in which participants were asked to identify their ethnic group based on ethnic categories (Black/African American, Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and â€Å"other†) and to rate the intensity of their identification with their ethnic group on a scale from 1 (weak) to 5 (very strong). The hypothesis was that the identification of Black consumers with their ethnic group would have a significant influence on their attendance frequency at HBCU sport events. The findings offered support for the hypothesis indicating a positive relationship between ethnic identification and attendance frequency. In another study, Armstrong (2000) examined the influence of ethnic identification on African American students’ processing of persuasive sport communications (i. e. , advertisement, promotional messages, developmental campaigns, and announcements). The ethnic identification of the respondents was measured using a 13-item scale developed by Whittler, Calatone, and Young (1991). The scale assesses two major factors of ethnic identification (cross-race attraction and political and social 11 relations among Blacks). The outcome of the study revealed that ethnic identification has an effect on participants’ reaction to racial heuristics in the communication. African American consumers are more likely to have a positive reaction to a persuasive communication if the message were culturally relevant and delivered by a Black spokesperson. Pons et al. (2001) looked at the impact ethnic identity could have on the consumption behavior and orientation of sport consumers. They measured language (3 items), religion (3 items), and social participation with one’s own ethnic group (6 items) as three dimensions of ethnic identity. The orientation of sport consumers has three dimensions. The first dimension refers to sporting events as a provider of sensations in which consumers have an emotional attachment to the event or the product. The second dimension represents individuals’ need to understand the sporting event, which lead to better appreciation for the event. The third dimension of orientation toward sporting event refers to the socialization opportunities presented for sport consumers. The consumption behaviors include purchase of sporting good, tickets, and time devoted to sporting events. The results offered support for the idea that ethnic identity has a positive impact on the consumption and orientation of sport consumers. In regard to the race of sport consumers as part of their ethnicity, researchers have found a difference between Blacks and Whites concerning their sport involvement (Spreitzer Snyder, 1990). Sport involvement included seven dimensions â€Å"watching sports on television, listening to sport on the radio, reading the sport pages of the newspaper, watching/listening to sports news on radio/television, reading sports books, reading sports magazines, and talking about sports with friends† (Spreitzer Snyder, 1990, p. 51). The findings revealed significant effect of race on sport involvement regardless of respondents’ social background characteristics (i. e. , age, sex, education, income, town size). Blacks tend to be more involved in sport than Whites. The authors argued that the findings reflect a distinctive subculture within the black community. Rudman (1986) examined the relationship between race, social structure, and sport orientations. The main goal of the study was to see whether factors that affect sport orientations are race-dependant. The results showed Blacks to be more likely than Whites to become vicariously involved in sport outcomes and to incorporate sport into their daily 12 lives. Based on the overall analyses, the author argued that social and economic conditions provide a better explanation of differences in sport orientations. He used the term â€Å"culture of poverty† to indicate that socioeconomic positions are more likely to make boor blacks and boor whites see sport as an opportunity to enhance social prestige and economic position. At the college level, Armstrong (2001) examined ethnic minority students’ consumption of college sport events. The ethnic minorities included African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, and â€Å"Others†. She looked at the degree of ethnic minority students’ interest in sport spectating, the frequency in which they attend university sponsored sport events, and the factors that influence their decision to attend campus sport events. Eight factors were tested to see their influence on the students’ attendance. The factors are the price of the tickets, academic commitment, significant others, friends, watching the event on television, the option to spend money on other things, not knowing when tickets are available, the quality of the opponent. The factors identified had no significant influence on students’ attendance. The findings indicate that ethnic minority students generally had a favorable attitude towards sport spectating. However, about 44% of the student stated that they never attend a campus sport event, 41% stated that they seldom attended, and 15% have attended often. The author contended that minority students had a favorable attitude toward sport spectating but they never or seldom attend sport events on campus because they view these events as directed to a specific group (i.e. , dominant ethnic group). For minority students to be motivated to attend, the sport event has to be socially and culturally relevant to the students’ ethnic background. In professional sport, Zhang, Pease, Hui, Michaud (1995) and Zhang, Pease, Smith, Lee, Lam, Jambor (1997) indicated that factors such as game promotions, amenities, and schedule convenience influenced ethnic minorities’ attendance differently and more significantly than they did Whites’. Therefore, sport marketers should emphasize the sociocultural factors (i. e., offering different ethnic foods at the concession stands, playing different ethnic music, making announcement in different languages) in promoting sport consumption of ethnic minority consumers (Armstrong, 2001; Hofacre Burman, 1992; McCarthy Stillman, 1998). 13 In a direct connection to the current investigation, previous studies have found differences on the motivations of sport fans based on ethnicity. Wann, Bilyeu, Brennan, Osborn, Gambouras (1999) investigated the relationship between sport fans’ motivation and race. A sample of 65 Euro-Americans and 32 African Americans completed the Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS). The SFMS, developed by Wann (1995), includes eight motivational factors (eustress, self-esteem benefit, diversion from everyday life, entertainment value, economic value, aesthetic value, need for affiliation, and family needs). The findings indicated that Euro-Americans reported higher motivation than African Americans. The authors argued that certain motives might be applicable to only a subset of races. In a recent study, Bilyeu and Wann (2002) examined the racial differences in sport fan motivation between African Americans and European Americans. First, 50 African American participants completed a demographic questionnaire and an interview with the researcher to discuss their motives for being a sport fan. Second, the motives discovered from the interviews were sent to African American psychologists and sociologists for validation. Third, the new motives were added to the SFMS, then the African American and European American participants were asked to complete the SFMS. The findings suggested that three new factors be added to the SFMS: â€Å"representation (e. g. , people of the same background), similarity (e. g., people they have things in common with), and support/perceived greater equality (e. g. , people they want to succeed)† (Bilyeu Wann, 2002, p. 93). Armstrong (2002) indicated that previous investigations of motivation for sport consumption were not applicable to Black consumers because the samples used in these investigations were predominantly White. Therefore, she added a cultural affiliation motive to the SFMS, developed by Wann (1995), and administered it to a sample of only Black consumers of sport. The findings supported the hypotheses that cultural affiliation is a viable motive for Black’s sport consumption. In addition, the factor structure of the SFMS with the inclusion of the cultural affiliation motive differed from previous studies (Wann, 1995; Wann, Schrader, Wilson, 1999). Therefore, the Black Consumer’ Sport Motivation Scale (BCSMS) was introduced including the following factors: eustress, group recreation, aesthetics, cultural affiliation, group entertainment, escape, and 14 personal (economic/psychological) investment. At the conclusion of the study, the author stated, â€Å"behaviors and motives related to sport consumption may also be influenced by the social and psychological manifestations of culture† (Armstrong, 2002, p.329). In summary, although research on ethnic identity for sport fans is very limited, a strong relationship was found between sport consumers’ ethnic identity and sport consumption and orientation. Also, the differences found on the motivations for sport fans based on ethnicity, should indicate a strong relationship between sport fans’ motivation and ethnic identity. However, it is the goal of this investigation to examine this relationship.